By Mohamad Amir Nasher Alneam. Translated by Yaaser Azzayyaat.
[This series
of opinion articles on the relationship between secularism and authoritarianism
is the outcome of a collaboration between SyriaUntold and openDemocracy’s NAWA].
of opinion articles on the relationship between secularism and authoritarianism
is the outcome of a collaboration between SyriaUntold and openDemocracy’s NAWA].
When we
speak today about a secular interpretation of the Prophet, the issue at hand
isn’t Islam in its destined eventuality, but rather Islam in its genesis, at
the moment of its inception and emergence on the historical scene.
Interpretation is therefore not a search for novel meanings to be devised and
attached to the old faith as a cosmetic accessory. It is rather an attempt to
discover its original meanings, and to trace their transformations and
destinies. That is, to discern what has come “first,” and to handle it as
malleable and susceptible to interpretation.
speak today about a secular interpretation of the Prophet, the issue at hand
isn’t Islam in its destined eventuality, but rather Islam in its genesis, at
the moment of its inception and emergence on the historical scene.
Interpretation is therefore not a search for novel meanings to be devised and
attached to the old faith as a cosmetic accessory. It is rather an attempt to
discover its original meanings, and to trace their transformations and
destinies. That is, to discern what has come “first,” and to handle it as
malleable and susceptible to interpretation.
The
conception of secularism has developed in a prolonged and convoluted historical
path, like a sprawling tree with far-reaching twigs. This conception has been
so diversified that it often implies multidimensional, ambiguous and
contradictory notions.
conception of secularism has developed in a prolonged and convoluted historical
path, like a sprawling tree with far-reaching twigs. This conception has been
so diversified that it often implies multidimensional, ambiguous and
contradictory notions.
However, as
we trace the branches and twigs, we would arrive at the tree trunk, political
secularization (regardless of its gradations), and the root, intellectual
secularization (regardless of how radical it may be). Accordingly, the question
arises of whether the secular interpretation of the Prophet is going to be
politically or intellectually secular? The answer is both, politically and
intellectually.
we trace the branches and twigs, we would arrive at the tree trunk, political
secularization (regardless of its gradations), and the root, intellectual
secularization (regardless of how radical it may be). Accordingly, the question
arises of whether the secular interpretation of the Prophet is going to be
politically or intellectually secular? The answer is both, politically and
intellectually.
Intellectual
Secularization
Secularization
The earliest
symptoms of intellectual secularization were manifested through the Prophet’s
position on the sources of truth, which he didn’t limit to revelation. In
addition to the Divine source, he referred to the soul trails and spiritual
experience within the realms of intuition and feeling, rendering man himself
the witness and the judge: “Man shall bear witness against himself” [Qur’an
75:15]. Other sources of truth include roaming the world and contemplating past
experiences of mankind — what we call history — as well as looking upon nature:
the land, the sky, and the cosmos. Followers of the Prophet would soon venture
with this spirit of intellectual secularism to transform astrology into astronomy.
symptoms of intellectual secularization were manifested through the Prophet’s
position on the sources of truth, which he didn’t limit to revelation. In
addition to the Divine source, he referred to the soul trails and spiritual
experience within the realms of intuition and feeling, rendering man himself
the witness and the judge: “Man shall bear witness against himself” [Qur’an
75:15]. Other sources of truth include roaming the world and contemplating past
experiences of mankind — what we call history — as well as looking upon nature:
the land, the sky, and the cosmos. Followers of the Prophet would soon venture
with this spirit of intellectual secularism to transform astrology into astronomy.
The position
of Prophet Muhammad was similar to that of western scholars who were subject to
nefarious inquisitions. We know that the concept of intellectual secularism in
Europe has only crystallized through questioning the sources of truth, the path
to it, and the means with which to verify it. The attempted answers would soon
generate a bitter struggle between the Church, whose source of truth was
confined to what’s in the Bible, and scientists, who considered the “Book of Nature” as equally authoritative.
of Prophet Muhammad was similar to that of western scholars who were subject to
nefarious inquisitions. We know that the concept of intellectual secularism in
Europe has only crystallized through questioning the sources of truth, the path
to it, and the means with which to verify it. The attempted answers would soon
generate a bitter struggle between the Church, whose source of truth was
confined to what’s in the Bible, and scientists, who considered the “Book of Nature” as equally authoritative.
As noted by
José Casanova, the conflict between the church and the new science, symbolized
by the trial of Galileo Galilei, “was not about the substantive truth or
falsity of the new Copernican theories of the universe as much as it was about
the validity of the claims of the new science to have discovered a new autonomous
method of obtaining and verifying truth. […] Thus, the attempts of all the
pioneers — Galileo, Kepler, and Newton — to enthrone the ‘Book of Nature’ was a
legitimate, separate but equal, epistemological way to God, along with the
‘Book of Revelation’[i].” The position assumed by the scientists of the
renaissance was very similar, if not identical, to that of Prophet Muhammad.
José Casanova, the conflict between the church and the new science, symbolized
by the trial of Galileo Galilei, “was not about the substantive truth or
falsity of the new Copernican theories of the universe as much as it was about
the validity of the claims of the new science to have discovered a new autonomous
method of obtaining and verifying truth. […] Thus, the attempts of all the
pioneers — Galileo, Kepler, and Newton — to enthrone the ‘Book of Nature’ was a
legitimate, separate but equal, epistemological way to God, along with the
‘Book of Revelation’[i].” The position assumed by the scientists of the
renaissance was very similar, if not identical, to that of Prophet Muhammad.
Political
Secularization
Secularization
As for
political secularization, its symptoms were manifested through the Prophet’s
insistence on the principle of separation of powers. Returning to the first,
unmistakable meaning in the Prophet’s persona, we would notice the diversity of
the Prophet’s worldly decisions, in accordance to the multiple manifestations
of his prophethood. We would also notice that the Medina era was more appropriate for these
manifestations to be demonstrated. In Mecca, he mostly played the role of the Prophet, whereas
in Medina he went on to play three major roles: Muhammad the Prophet, Muhammad
the Judge, and Muhammad the Leader. That these three roles were distinguishable
is at the very core and heart of secularism.
political secularization, its symptoms were manifested through the Prophet’s
insistence on the principle of separation of powers. Returning to the first,
unmistakable meaning in the Prophet’s persona, we would notice the diversity of
the Prophet’s worldly decisions, in accordance to the multiple manifestations
of his prophethood. We would also notice that the Medina era was more appropriate for these
manifestations to be demonstrated. In Mecca, he mostly played the role of the Prophet, whereas
in Medina he went on to play three major roles: Muhammad the Prophet, Muhammad
the Judge, and Muhammad the Leader. That these three roles were distinguishable
is at the very core and heart of secularism.
It is
perhaps in this point that Prophet Muhammad is different from Jesus Christ.
Jesus didn’t achieve a standing as high as to put into practice a separation of
powers, although he did call for it – his message could be likened to
Muhammad’s Meccan era.
perhaps in this point that Prophet Muhammad is different from Jesus Christ.
Jesus didn’t achieve a standing as high as to put into practice a separation of
powers, although he did call for it – his message could be likened to
Muhammad’s Meccan era.
Although
most Islamic scholars have noted this separation of powers, they didn’t go as
far as to render it a fundamental basis of Islamic governance, where it would
be doctrinally rooted, culturally promoted and ultimately considered a binding
principle with clear legal foundation and implementable laws for rulers and
sultans.
most Islamic scholars have noted this separation of powers, they didn’t go as
far as to render it a fundamental basis of Islamic governance, where it would
be doctrinally rooted, culturally promoted and ultimately considered a binding
principle with clear legal foundation and implementable laws for rulers and
sultans.
As he acted
in a judicial capacity, the Prophet made clear to his companions that he
separated his religious authority from his judicial power, judging by the
clues, evidence and proof available to him. Moreover, to further emphasize the
principle of separation of powers, he went to the extent of telling them that
he may even misjudge, but only according to the evidence at hand, which ought
to be duly assessed and respected. In a sahih hadith [a correctly verified report on the
Prophet’s words and deeds], he said: “I am but a man, and those with a dispute
come to me. Perhaps some of you are more eloquent in arguing their case than
others, and I rule for that person based on what I hear from him. Therefore, if
I rule in the favor of anyone at the expense of his brother’s right in
anything, then they should not take from that, because it is a piece of
hellfire.”
in a judicial capacity, the Prophet made clear to his companions that he
separated his religious authority from his judicial power, judging by the
clues, evidence and proof available to him. Moreover, to further emphasize the
principle of separation of powers, he went to the extent of telling them that
he may even misjudge, but only according to the evidence at hand, which ought
to be duly assessed and respected. In a sahih hadith [a correctly verified report on the
Prophet’s words and deeds], he said: “I am but a man, and those with a dispute
come to me. Perhaps some of you are more eloquent in arguing their case than
others, and I rule for that person based on what I hear from him. Therefore, if
I rule in the favor of anyone at the expense of his brother’s right in
anything, then they should not take from that, because it is a piece of
hellfire.”
He also made
clear that, as he led the army, he separated his religious authority from his
military command, and that he followed the rules of warfare and schemed plans
and stratagems. During the Battle of Badr [624 AD], according to Ibn
Hisham’s sira [one of the Prophet’s biographies], “Al-Habbab Ibn
Al-Mundhir Ibn Al-Jamouh said: ‘O Messenger of God, this place where now we
are, has God revealed it unto you, that we should neither advance nor retreat
from it, or is it a matter of opinion and strategy?’ He said ‘No, it was a
matter of opinion and strategy’, whereupon Al-Habban said: ‘This is not the
place to camp, O Messenger of God, but take us on, until we come unto that one
of the large wells which is nearest the enemy. Let us camp there and destroy
the wells that lie beyond it, then make for ourselves a cistern. We will thus
fight the enemy, and all the water will be ours to drink and they will have
none.’ The Prophet said: ‘Excellent opinion.’ He and his soldiers went on until
they reached the nearest well to the enemy and camped there.”
clear that, as he led the army, he separated his religious authority from his
military command, and that he followed the rules of warfare and schemed plans
and stratagems. During the Battle of Badr [624 AD], according to Ibn
Hisham’s sira [one of the Prophet’s biographies], “Al-Habbab Ibn
Al-Mundhir Ibn Al-Jamouh said: ‘O Messenger of God, this place where now we
are, has God revealed it unto you, that we should neither advance nor retreat
from it, or is it a matter of opinion and strategy?’ He said ‘No, it was a
matter of opinion and strategy’, whereupon Al-Habban said: ‘This is not the
place to camp, O Messenger of God, but take us on, until we come unto that one
of the large wells which is nearest the enemy. Let us camp there and destroy
the wells that lie beyond it, then make for ourselves a cistern. We will thus
fight the enemy, and all the water will be ours to drink and they will have
none.’ The Prophet said: ‘Excellent opinion.’ He and his soldiers went on until
they reached the nearest well to the enemy and camped there.”
Additionally,
in the famous sahih hadith about the pollination of palm-trees, he
affirmed: “If a question relates to your worldly matters, you would know better
about it, but if it relates to your religion, then to me it belongs.”
in the famous sahih hadith about the pollination of palm-trees, he
affirmed: “If a question relates to your worldly matters, you would know better
about it, but if it relates to your religion, then to me it belongs.”
In sum, the
Prophet has always delineated when he acted as a mufti, when as a leader, and
when as a prophet, without any of these manifestations interfering with,
prevailing over or exploiting the other. He upheld and exhibited the principle
of separation of powers, especially the separation of his religious authority
from other authorities.
Prophet has always delineated when he acted as a mufti, when as a leader, and
when as a prophet, without any of these manifestations interfering with,
prevailing over or exploiting the other. He upheld and exhibited the principle
of separation of powers, especially the separation of his religious authority
from other authorities.
Prophethood
As a Prelude to Secularization
As a Prelude to Secularization
Seeking to
explain to the west the overwhelming reaction that swept the Muslim world
following the publication of Salman Rushdie’s ‘The Satanic Verses’ (1988),
German orientalist Annemarie Schimmel (1922-2003) wrote her book ‘And Muhammad Is His Messenger’, in which she explores some
aspects of the love and reverence Muslims have for their Prophet.
explain to the west the overwhelming reaction that swept the Muslim world
following the publication of Salman Rushdie’s ‘The Satanic Verses’ (1988),
German orientalist Annemarie Schimmel (1922-2003) wrote her book ‘And Muhammad Is His Messenger’, in which she explores some
aspects of the love and reverence Muslims have for their Prophet.
Based on
rigorous examination of books written in Arabic, Persian and Turkish, Schimmel
details the works of many scholars and poets who have demonstrated tremendous
love and infatuation with Muhammad. She dedicates an entire chapter for poet Muhammad Iqbal (1877-1938), whose poetry exudes
an exceptionally overwhelming and most profoundly rooted love for the Prophet.
rigorous examination of books written in Arabic, Persian and Turkish, Schimmel
details the works of many scholars and poets who have demonstrated tremendous
love and infatuation with Muhammad. She dedicates an entire chapter for poet Muhammad Iqbal (1877-1938), whose poetry exudes
an exceptionally overwhelming and most profoundly rooted love for the Prophet.
Given his
deep understanding and familiarity with Prophet Muhammad’s truly unique
personality, Iqbal was the Muslim who revealed some of the least addressed
dimensions of his life. Notably, he suggested that the finality of prophethood
was a prelude to secularism. In 1928, he wrote that “the Prophet of Islam seems
to stand between the ancient and the modern world. In so far as the source of
his revelation is concerned he belongs to the ancient world; in so far as the
spirit of his revelation is concerned he belongs to the modern world. In him
life discovers other sources of knowledge suitable to its new direction. The
birth of Islam, as I hope to be able presently to prove to your satisfaction,
is the birth of inductive intellect. In Islam prophecy reaches its perfection
in discovering the need of its own abolition. This involves the keen perception
that life cannot for ever be kept in leading strings; that, in order to achieve
full self-consciousness, man must finally be thrown back on his own resources[ii].”
deep understanding and familiarity with Prophet Muhammad’s truly unique
personality, Iqbal was the Muslim who revealed some of the least addressed
dimensions of his life. Notably, he suggested that the finality of prophethood
was a prelude to secularism. In 1928, he wrote that “the Prophet of Islam seems
to stand between the ancient and the modern world. In so far as the source of
his revelation is concerned he belongs to the ancient world; in so far as the
spirit of his revelation is concerned he belongs to the modern world. In him
life discovers other sources of knowledge suitable to its new direction. The
birth of Islam, as I hope to be able presently to prove to your satisfaction,
is the birth of inductive intellect. In Islam prophecy reaches its perfection
in discovering the need of its own abolition. This involves the keen perception
that life cannot for ever be kept in leading strings; that, in order to achieve
full self-consciousness, man must finally be thrown back on his own resources[ii].”
With its
ambitious Nietzschean spirit, as well as its impressive understanding for its
time, this analysis of the finality of prophethood paved the way for a new
understanding of the Prophet’s character, and of his unparalleled role and
status not at the local level, but on the universal level at large. In ‘Patterns in Comparative Religion’, Mircea Eliade
(1907-1968), one of the most prominent scholars of religion, reiterates Iqbal’s
argument as if he were quoting it. “He places Muhammad at the transition point
between the second and third (last) period in mankind’s spiritual development.
The history of the human mind […] is a process of general secularization. In
this vision, Muhammad stands on the threshold of the triumph of religion
(Christianity) and the new secular age[iii].”
ambitious Nietzschean spirit, as well as its impressive understanding for its
time, this analysis of the finality of prophethood paved the way for a new
understanding of the Prophet’s character, and of his unparalleled role and
status not at the local level, but on the universal level at large. In ‘Patterns in Comparative Religion’, Mircea Eliade
(1907-1968), one of the most prominent scholars of religion, reiterates Iqbal’s
argument as if he were quoting it. “He places Muhammad at the transition point
between the second and third (last) period in mankind’s spiritual development.
The history of the human mind […] is a process of general secularization. In
this vision, Muhammad stands on the threshold of the triumph of religion
(Christianity) and the new secular age[iii].”
It is
remarkable that Christian priests in the Middle Ages discerned this secular
aspect of Islam, which is why Christian literature has always portrayed Prophet
Muhammad as a materialistic prophet. The prompt and immediate justification of
this allegation was ostensibly grounded in Islam’s exaggerated picturing of a sensual paradise. This
criticism is in fact leveled at the whole Islamic tradition, which is more
reconciled and familiarized with the earthly world. This tradition has been
based on a prophetic character who is famously quoted as saying “Made beloved to me from your world
are women and perfume, and the coolness of my eyes is in prayer.”
remarkable that Christian priests in the Middle Ages discerned this secular
aspect of Islam, which is why Christian literature has always portrayed Prophet
Muhammad as a materialistic prophet. The prompt and immediate justification of
this allegation was ostensibly grounded in Islam’s exaggerated picturing of a sensual paradise. This
criticism is in fact leveled at the whole Islamic tradition, which is more
reconciled and familiarized with the earthly world. This tradition has been
based on a prophetic character who is famously quoted as saying “Made beloved to me from your world
are women and perfume, and the coolness of my eyes is in prayer.”
Indeed, the
philosophical roots of secularization in Christendom could be traced to Muslim
thinkers, most notably Andalusian philosopher Averroes. The dispute over his
legacy in the 13th century, or what was called the suppression of Averroism, sparked the beginnings of an
intellectual secularization movement, centuries before political
secularization.
philosophical roots of secularization in Christendom could be traced to Muslim
thinkers, most notably Andalusian philosopher Averroes. The dispute over his
legacy in the 13th century, or what was called the suppression of Averroism, sparked the beginnings of an
intellectual secularization movement, centuries before political
secularization.
Turning to
Muhammad Iqbal, do we find a work or position by him encapsulating a practical
application of his aforementioned understanding and analysis? Yes, we do, and
astoundingly so. This Muslim thinker, who was brimming with religious zeal and
pride, and who referred to Islam as the greatest means of rationality and
balance for humanity, has been among the few Muslim figures to show
understanding of the abolition of the caliphate by Mustafa Kemal Ataturk.
Muhammad Iqbal, do we find a work or position by him encapsulating a practical
application of his aforementioned understanding and analysis? Yes, we do, and
astoundingly so. This Muslim thinker, who was brimming with religious zeal and
pride, and who referred to Islam as the greatest means of rationality and
balance for humanity, has been among the few Muslim figures to show
understanding of the abolition of the caliphate by Mustafa Kemal Ataturk.
Unlike most
Muslim poets and scholars who were astonished and dumbfounded on that day,
Iqbal stood alone against the current, praised the first secular movement in
the Muslim world, and commended the diligence with which the post-Ottoman
republic was founded. “Let us see how the Grand National Assembly has exercised
this power of Ijtihad [“original interpretation” in Islamic jurisprudence]
in regard to the institution of Khilafat [Arabic for “caliphate”],”
he wrote, asking, “Should the Caliphate be vested in a single person?” His
answer was “Turkey’s Ijtihad is that, according to the spirit of
Islam, the Caliphate or Imamate can be vested in a body of persons, or an
elected Assembly.”
Muslim poets and scholars who were astonished and dumbfounded on that day,
Iqbal stood alone against the current, praised the first secular movement in
the Muslim world, and commended the diligence with which the post-Ottoman
republic was founded. “Let us see how the Grand National Assembly has exercised
this power of Ijtihad [“original interpretation” in Islamic jurisprudence]
in regard to the institution of Khilafat [Arabic for “caliphate”],”
he wrote, asking, “Should the Caliphate be vested in a single person?” His
answer was “Turkey’s Ijtihad is that, according to the spirit of
Islam, the Caliphate or Imamate can be vested in a body of persons, or an
elected Assembly.”
Iqbal then
says: “Personally, I believe the Turkish view is perfectly sound. It is hardly
necessary to argue this point. The republican form of government is not only
thoroughly consistent with the spirit of Islam, but has also become a necessity
in view of the new forces that were set free in the world of Islam[iv].”
says: “Personally, I believe the Turkish view is perfectly sound. It is hardly
necessary to argue this point. The republican form of government is not only
thoroughly consistent with the spirit of Islam, but has also become a necessity
in view of the new forces that were set free in the world of Islam[iv].”
Moroccan
PM Dr. Saadeddine Al-Othmani, one of the country’s most
prominent Islamists, has authored a few years ago a book entitled ‘The
Prophet’s Behavior With Regards to the Imamate’ [‘Tasarrufat Ar-Rasul Bil-Imamah’ (2002), available in Arabic
only]. Al-Othmani’s text is actually an Islamist case for secularism.
Regardless of the author’s secularist intentions or lack thereof, the diversity
of the Prophet’s actions, between being a prophet, a judge and a leader, leads
only to this conclusion.
PM Dr. Saadeddine Al-Othmani, one of the country’s most
prominent Islamists, has authored a few years ago a book entitled ‘The
Prophet’s Behavior With Regards to the Imamate’ [‘Tasarrufat Ar-Rasul Bil-Imamah’ (2002), available in Arabic
only]. Al-Othmani’s text is actually an Islamist case for secularism.
Regardless of the author’s secularist intentions or lack thereof, the diversity
of the Prophet’s actions, between being a prophet, a judge and a leader, leads
only to this conclusion.
However, the
long historical experience of rulers and politicians, and the immense
intellectual efforts made by their cohorts against secularism, have produced
but one understanding of the Prophet. Regrettably, he has been rendered
exemplary of the integration rather than separation of powers, and his
misinterpreted actions have become the justification for an opportunistic and
demagogic conflation of them. A Muslim ruler’s first and foremost concern is
entrenching his grip over all authorities without defined boundaries. Even
those who claim to be secular rulers maintain all powers as intertwined,
muddled and deformed, where one could hardly find a distinction between the
executive, judicial, legislative, political or religious authorities. They are
all rendered theatrical puppets, lulling us at times and terrorizing us at
others.
long historical experience of rulers and politicians, and the immense
intellectual efforts made by their cohorts against secularism, have produced
but one understanding of the Prophet. Regrettably, he has been rendered
exemplary of the integration rather than separation of powers, and his
misinterpreted actions have become the justification for an opportunistic and
demagogic conflation of them. A Muslim ruler’s first and foremost concern is
entrenching his grip over all authorities without defined boundaries. Even
those who claim to be secular rulers maintain all powers as intertwined,
muddled and deformed, where one could hardly find a distinction between the
executive, judicial, legislative, political or religious authorities. They are
all rendered theatrical puppets, lulling us at times and terrorizing us at
others.
Since the
French Revolution, Christianity has managed to rationalize secularism, initiate
a secular interpretation of its faith, thus resolving the secular-religious
debate once and for all. It only required one biblical phrase that doesn’t
exceed half a line: “Render unto Caesar the things that are Caesar’s, and unto
God the things that are God’s.” Meanwhile in the Islamic world, secularism is
still approached haphazardly, and so is the principle of separation of powers.
Instead of exploring the vast potential available to us to interpret Islam and
its prophethood secularly, with much less artificiality and arbitrariness, we
have preferred to remain woefully steadfast and unyielding.
French Revolution, Christianity has managed to rationalize secularism, initiate
a secular interpretation of its faith, thus resolving the secular-religious
debate once and for all. It only required one biblical phrase that doesn’t
exceed half a line: “Render unto Caesar the things that are Caesar’s, and unto
God the things that are God’s.” Meanwhile in the Islamic world, secularism is
still approached haphazardly, and so is the principle of separation of powers.
Instead of exploring the vast potential available to us to interpret Islam and
its prophethood secularly, with much less artificiality and arbitrariness, we
have preferred to remain woefully steadfast and unyielding.
The writer’s
opinions do not necessarily reflect SyriaUntold’s views.
opinions do not necessarily reflect SyriaUntold’s views.
[Main image:
Drawing of tomb mosque of Prophet Muhammad in Medina, Saudi Arabia. Text in
Arabic. Serves as souvenir of pilgrimage to mosque of Muhammad in Medina,
includes spaces for names of witnesses attesting to completion of pilgrimage –
3-6-2011 (Hoover Institution Archives Poster Collection/Fair use. All
rights reserved to the author].
Drawing of tomb mosque of Prophet Muhammad in Medina, Saudi Arabia. Text in
Arabic. Serves as souvenir of pilgrimage to mosque of Muhammad in Medina,
includes spaces for names of witnesses attesting to completion of pilgrimage –
3-6-2011 (Hoover Institution Archives Poster Collection/Fair use. All
rights reserved to the author].
[i] José Casanova, Public Religions in the Modern
World (Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 2011), 25.
World (Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 2011), 25.
[ii] Muhammad Iqbal, The Reconstruction of
Religious Thought in Islam (Stanford, Stanford University Press, 2012),
100-101.
Religious Thought in Islam (Stanford, Stanford University Press, 2012),
100-101.
[iii] Alija Izetbegović, Islam Between East and
West (Calicut, Islamic Book Trust & Other Books, 2013), 193.
West (Calicut, Islamic Book Trust & Other Books, 2013), 193.
[iv] Iqbal, 124-125.
Syriauntold
M.Amir
Nasher Alneam
Nasher Alneam